Abortion summary - essay - 2595 Words

Abortion is a very controversial social issue that has existed for many decades. The controversy behind this issue is caused by the different views that people and societies have regarding abortion. The social science disciplines of political science and religion will be used in getting a better understanding of the opposing views of abortion. In discussing the religious aspects of abortion, this paper will focus on the Jewish and Catholic views of abortion and how the two faiths effect an individual s decision upon having an abortion. When discussing the political controversy regarding abortion, this paper will discuss the abortion laws in Canada and the United States as well as the pro-choice and anti-choice movements of abortion.†¦show more content†¦According to the Jewish religion, the proper circumstances for having an abortion are in order to save the woman s life, if the pregnancy will harm a woman s health and in cases of incest or rape (Kolatch, 1985). The Mishnah, one of the books of the Talmud, indicates that a mother s life must be saved even at the cost of the life of the fetus at any stage of the pregnancy, as long as the child is in the womb (Klein, 1979). The Jewish religion feels that the life of the mother is more important than that of the unborn child and that the mother s life has priority over the life of an unborn child. Maimonides states that the child is sacrificed because it has the status of a pursuer, one who threatens the life of another, and its life may be taken as long as it is still in the womb (Maimonides, 1963). Therapeutic abortions are permissible in the early stages of abortion in the case of incest or rape where shame and embarrassment to the mother from the continuance of the pregnancy are considered threats to her health (Klein, 1979). In the case of adultery, a woman impregnated while engaging in adulterous action is not allowed to have an abortion (Kolatch, 1985) since the Ten Commandments state thou shalt no t commit adultery (Exodus 20.1-17). When a Jewish couple gets married, it is theirShow MoreRelatedLife Of The Mother By William Shakespeare1360 Words   |  6 Pageslife of the mother. Marquis believes that abortion is almost always morally impermissible, except in extreme circumstances, because the fetus has a future life. I will simply evaluate each of the authors reasonings that defend their belief, and give my argument for why I believe Don Marquis’ essay is more convincing. (SUMMARY DEFENSE OF ABORTION) Thompson begins by stating â€Å" a fetus is a person and that killing a person is, in essence, murder, and thus morally wrong.† Thompson uses many analogiesRead MoreTheories And Arguments : Inherit The Wind By Jerome Lawrence Robert E. Lee Essay780 Words   |  4 Pageswhen we don’t want them to. Extremist beliefs in both religion and science can lead to poor judgment and an imposition of unearned power and beliefs Throughout history and today, we are still fighting this battle (i.e. Turkey, ISIS, LGBTQ+ rights, abortion/birth control, etc.) Essential Questions: How do we affect nature and how does it affect us? How do our morals and values inform our decisions in the outside world? How do people make thoughtful choices even when they disagree with what societyRead MoreOutline: a Modest Proposal Essay1044 Words   |  5 PagesMerriam-Webster’s Dictionary. Satire is â€Å"trenchant wit, irony, or sarcasm used to expose and discredit vice or folly.† Writers began to use satire to introduce moral or political change in society through the use of critical humor. II. Body A. Summary 1. In 1729, Jonathan Swift wrote â€Å"A Modest Proposal† in order to bring attention to the problem of poverty in Ireland. Swift was outraged at the Irish population because they were allowing the British to put them into a situation where they wereRead MoreEssay on Logical, Ethical, and Emotional Argumentation998 Words   |  4 Pages(Lundsford 115-116). Any sort of persuasive piece, be it an essay, a video, or an editorial; employs ethos, pathos, and logos to try to prove its point. â€Å"The Torture Myth† is a short anti-torture essay written by journalist Anne Applebaum four years after the September 11th, 2001 attacks and before the Senate vote on the nomination of pro-torture Alberto Gonzales for Attorney General. Applebaum does not directly use ethos in her essay; however, a short bibliographical passage in The Seagull ReaderRead MoreAnalysis Of The Right To Ones Body By Margaret Sanger911 Words   |  4 PagesJake Siford History 1152 Professor Graves 4 November 2017 Primary Source Review #3 Margret Sanger, writer of the essay â€Å"The Right to One’s Body† will be the author for this primary review. Sanger, as described by biography.com, was â€Å"†¦ an early feminist and women’s rights activist who coined the term ‘birth control’ and worked towards its legalization† (â€Å"Margaret Sanger†). Margret was also responsible for the creation of the first planned parenthood center, and later was a founding member of theRead MoreGlobal Environmental Issues Of The World1605 Words   |  7 Pagesattention today, amid the new population projections(1). Recent researches show that the world population took billions of years to reach 7 billion and between 200 years rapidly increased 5 percent and increased to 7.4 billion(2).(2) In a famous 1798 essay, the Reverend Thomas Malthus proposed that human population would grow more rapidly than our ability to grow food, and that eventually we would starve; because of this scientist a nd population analysts are afraid of overpopulation which will eventuallyRead MoreWhy Abortion Is Immoral?2174 Words   |  9 PagesWhy Abortion Is Immoral Even In The Extreme Event Of Rape Or Incest: It is only justifiable if by the â€Å"Principle of the Double Effect† Abortion is an issue that has been debated for several centuries, and it is not going to go away any time soon. If both sides continue to remain firm in their own principles and fight for what they consider to be right, while also demonizing those who hold just as strong of beliefs and convictions on the other side, abortion will be an issue that will be questionedRead MoreFeminism And Women s Suffrage Essay1360 Words   |  6 Pagesother. The feminist movement can be see mainly in 3 stages in the UK. It can be argued that feminism had its day due to lack of momentum behind a third and fourth stage of its movement resulting in a decline of feminism in this generation. In this essay, I will be focusing more attention on the first and second waves of feminism compared to third stage of feminism. The first wave of feminism in the UK was linked to women’s suffrage. Due to the male dominated society in the 1900s, opponents fearedRead MoreGlobal Environmental Issues Of The World1540 Words   |  7 Pagesattention today, amid the new population projections(1). Recent researches show that the world population took billions of years to reach 7 billion and between 200 years rapidly increased 5 percent and increased to 7.4 billion(2). In a famous 1798 essay, the Reverend Thomas Malthus proposed that human population would grow more rapidly than our ability to grow food, and that eventually we would starve; because of this scientist and population analysts are afraid of overpopulation which will eventuallyRead MoreThe Evolution Of The Human Body996 Words   |  4 PagesAfter heavy analyzation, one would soon learn that the archaeology information website is primarily focused on the evolution of the human body. The web source provides various selections to choose from, includi ng: the human evolution summary, timeline, hall of skulls, and their perspectives. Likewise, the human evolution page describes the fossil hominids and their origins. The author recapitulates the hominid family, which consists of Homo, Australopithecus, and Ardipithecus. Correspondingly, the

Do God Exist - 1960 Words

Thesis Statements 1. Because of man’s ignorance and curiosity, arguments for the existence of God have been made over the years. Basically, these arguments are divided into two large groups i.e. logical and metaphysical. Actually, these arguments seek to prove that the existence of a being or having faith with at least one attribute that only God could have is logically necessary. 2. Believing and having faith in God will only resort to one thing—goodness. 3. Faith has something to do with one’s conception about God. 4. The existence of God remains a matter of faith since it’s difficult to prove God to someone who does not believe. 5. There are arguments that attempts to give information of what they know about†¦show more content†¦The analogy just doesn’t work. Second, some say that the theories of the big bang and evolution better explain the complexity in the universe. Third, some say that even if the teleological argument is true, it does not prove the existence of the Christian God. 3. Ontological Argument The third argument for God’s existence is the ontological argument. This argument is unlike the cosmological and teleological arguments in that it does not argue from evidence in the natural world. Thus, it is not a â€Å"cause and effect† argument. The ontological argument can be stated in this way: â€Å"God is the greatest being imaginable. One of the aspects of perfection or greatness is existence. Thus, God exists.† Or put another way—â€Å"The fact that God can be conceived means that he must exist.† This argument for God’s existence was developed by the twelfth century theologian and philosopher, Anselm. It is based on Anselm’s declaration that God is â€Å"that which nothing greater can be conceived.† The ontological argument has been very controversial. Even many who believe in God’s existence question its validity. A contemporary of Anselm named Guanilo responded to Anselm. Guanilo said that one could imagine a perfect island but that did not mean a perfect island exists. Others have said you can imagine a unicorn but that does not mean unicorns exist. Thus, many challenge the idea thatShow MoreRelatedDescartess Argument For The Existence Of God Essay1522 Words   |  7 Pagesremained from his doubting could be considered the truth. This lead Descartes to argue for the existence of God. For the purpose of this paper, I will first discuss Descartes’s argument for the existence of God. I will then take issue with Descartes’s argument first with his view on formal reality and varying levels of reality, then with his argument that only God can cause the idea of God. I will then conclude with Descartes argues that some ideas are more real than others. These ideas areRead MoreSummary and Analysis of Various Documents1852 Words   |  7 Pagesargues the existence of God based on the following premises: God exists in our understanding which means that the concept of God exists as an idea in our mind. Anything that exists in our understanding has a correlation/ correspondence in the external world, therefore God is a possible being and may well exist in reality. Something that exists in reality is great. Something that is only a concept in our mind it is not replicated in reality may actually be greater was it to exist in actuality. Now StRead More The Controversial Subject of God Essay931 Words   |  4 PagesControversial Subject of God The topic of god is a very controversial subject that has been argued about ever since the beginning of mankind. Because God is so controversial, many battles have been fought to preserve one’s own beliefs. I myself, have my own beliefs on what I think god is and how god was created. Many theologians have different beliefs of who god is and why he exists. But the most common answer you will receive is, â€Å"God exists because he has to exist.† They would argue thatRead MoreThe Problem Of Evil, The Fine Tuning Argument And The Moral Argument1210 Words   |  5 Pages In this essay, I am going to argue that God exists. The three main concepts that I’m going to talk about which which are the problem of evil, the fine tuning argument and the moral argument. According to theism, God is: â€Å"that being which no greater is possible, and he is omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent.†. By having a God who only desires good, and us living in a world where evil exists, it is logically impossible and that is what created the problem of evil. There are two sides of theRead MoreThe Existence Of God : Ontological Argument Essay1696 Words   |  7 PagesThe question of the existence of God has troubled mankind for thousands of years. Many philosophers and theologians have always searched for prove whether God exists. Many of them constructed valid arguments which support theist believes. The existence of God was once never denied, as His presence, His existence was evident in miracles and the people s faith. But time and the advancement of m odern science have called God and His very nature into question. The Perfect Being has become the sourceRead MoreEssay on Descartes Ideas on the Existence of God1458 Words   |  6 Pagesthinking after these religions. Science has made us think of how things work in our world and brings Gods existence into question. There were no scientific studies done during the days of Jesus to prove that God exists, so where did the people in history get this idea of God from? Many philosophers have been questioning and giving their ideas of God and his existence. The ideas that we may have of God is usually connected with religion and our beliefs. One philosopher that touches on this topic isRead MoreThe Argument For The Existence Of God1674 Words   |  7 PagesI do not find the three arguments I analyzed satisfactory for the existence of God. The existence of God simply cannot be proven. Regardless of how strong a person’s faith is, or how many miracles they claim to have witnessed , God can only ever be a possibility. First, I will discuss why Pascal’s wager is not a satisfying argument for the existence of God. I will then examine C.D. Broad’s â€Å"Argument for the Existence of God†, and why it is also not a satisfying argument for the existence of God.Read MoreIs it Rational to Believe in God? Essays863 Words   |  4 PagesWhether god exists or not has been in discussion for thousands of years, and an important discussion. Whether it is rational to believe in god or not is another story, like believing in god itself, this topic has brought many discussions. It is one thing to discuss whether god is real or not and it is a complete other to discuss whether it is rational to believe in god or not. I believe that while there may not be any convincing evidence or arguments that God does exist, I do still believe that itRead MoreWhy God Can Exist By Alvin Plantinga s Modal Ontological Argument Essay1331 Words   |  6 Pagesreligion and a God. Religion for theists is crucia l and forms a focal point of their beliefs. For atheists, religion and a God in particular, are not worthwhile and are considered a waste of time. (Blackburn, 1999) Hence, the concept of God and whether God exists has been argued and questioned over thousands of years. Countless disputes and contradictory statements have occurred with no such ultimate conclusion finalised. The main crux of this essay is to show how God can exist by referringRead MoreA Debate On The Existence Of The Christian God904 Words   |  4 Pagesthe existence of the Christian God. The â€Å"Christian God† Before I begin, I want to re-emphasize that I am addressing what is known as the God of Christianity. Of course, I understand Christianity is fragmented when it comes to doctrine and beliefs. However, notwithstanding the difference in doctrine between Christian denominations, it seems reasonable to say that on balance, Christians believe in what is known as the Tri-Omni God. That is to say, they believe in a God that is Omnipotent, Omniscient

War dances free essay sample

Native Americans make up less than . 9% of the United States population. With this trivial number, it is difficult to keep its culture and traditions alive as generations progress. In the short story â€Å"War Dances,† author Sherman Alexie morns the loss of Native American identity through a deprecating tone which illustrate a divide between generations. Traditions and old teachings are essential to Native American culture; however growing up in the modern west creates a distance and ignorance about one’s identity. In the beginning, the narrator is in the hospital while as his father lies on his death bed, when he than encounters fellow Native Americans. One of these men talks about an elderly Indian Scholar who paradoxically discussed identity, â€Å"She had taken nostalgia as her false idol-her thin blanket-and it was murdering her† (6). The nostalgia represents the old Native American ways. The woman can’t seem to let go of the past, which in turn creates confusion for the man to why she can’t let it go because she was lecturing â€Å"†¦separate indigenous literary identity which was ironic considering that she was speaking English in a room full of white professors†(6). The man’s ignorance with the elderly woman’s message creates a further cultural identity struggle. Once more in the hospital, the narrator talks to another Native American man who similarly feels a divide with his culture. â€Å"The Indian world is filled with charlatan, men and women who pretend†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (5). The language used indicates a distance. Rather than using the word, â€Å"our†, to describe his heritage, the man says the,† Indian world†, which disassociates himself from the older generation of Native Americans. When the speaker does finally get the blanket he has been searching for, the elderly Native American man who gave him the blanket and says â€Å"let me bless it (blanket). † â€Å"I flinched†¦That was dangerous†(7). The syntax used creates a tense mood and is present only because the narrator does not understand his heritage. The unfamiliarity with the Native American ways is uncomfortable to him because he has lost so much of his cultural identity as a result of being part of a novel generation. As a coping mechanism, the author utilizes racial stereotypes toward Native Americans and humor to mask the distressing conflict of cultural confusion. After a fellow Native American man is describing his father’s ritual, he exclaims â€Å"I mean, come on, I’m a loser†¦my whole family is filled with losers†(5). The parallel structure of the two sentences creates what the man believes to be a truthful statement masked by a jesting tone. In order to cope with the man’s true thoughts on his Native American family, he comically pawns off an insult. When the narrator is wondering the hospital, another individual asked why his dad had to get his feet cut off. The man asks if it was caused by â€Å"Vodka straight up or with a nostalgia chaser? † He replies, â€Å"Both. † â€Å"Natural causes for an Indian†(6). The short dialect the characters have illustrates the commonness of alcoholism in Native American society. The casualness in which they talk about such a detrimental issue indicates that they are coping with their cultural problem by acting like its normal, which disassociates themselves from other Native Americans. When they continue to talk to one another, the narrator thinks, â€Å"This guy was talking out of his ass. I liked him immediately†(5). Both men don’t fully understand their Native American integrity, so they are embarrassed by it. In order to ease their embarrassment they say things on a whim, never knowing if they are real aspects of Native American culture or not. By â€Å"talking out of his ass† they are able to mask the fact that they feel a loss of identity with their own culture. As the title suggests, the â€Å"War Dance† is the clash between two contradicting cultures, mainly the younger generation opposing the older ones’ beliefs. In the hospital, one man complains at his father’s notion that being at a hospital is not necessary for the birth of a child. In response he says â€Å"you know how many babies died before we had good hospitals? Most of them†(5). The rhetorical style of the quote allows for the character to depict his frustration toward his own culture. Because he was born on the modern west, he believes in modern medicine, while his family believes the antithesis. Growing up in modern times generates a clash of generations. The older generation is stuck on old ways, while the younger generation can’t accept the old ways. The old beliefs frustrate the younger generation abundantly. â€Å"You should see my dad right now. He’s Pretending to go into this, like, fucking trance, dancing around my sister in the bed, and he says he’s trying to, you know, see into her womb, to see who the baby is, to see its true nature, so he can give it a name- a protective name-before its born† (5). The condescending tone of this quote exemplifies the frustration and disconnect that the younger generation has with the older one. Likewise, the elder generation appears to be discontent with the younger one. When the narrator thinks to how his father would respond to his good medical news, he says â€Å"But none of them laughed as hard about my beautiful brain as I knew my father-the drunken bastard- would have†(22). The author uses alliteration to add a positive effect to the quote, while balancing it with a negative message. This quote shows the disconnect present with the two generations. On one hand the narrator’s mind is healthy and â€Å"beautiful,† but in the eyes of his father his mind could never be beautiful because he never embraced the Native American culture. â€Å"War Dances† depicts Sherman Alexie’s view that Native American culture diminishes with younger generation by utilizing a deprecating tone. As newer generations grow up, they never fully understand the traditions of their elders, and as this cycle progresses, the Native American culture is lost.

The Cystic Fibrosis Gene Essay Research Paper Example For Students

The Cystic Fibrosis Gene Essay Research Paper Biology GeneticsThe Cystic Fibrosis GeneIntroduction:Cystic fibrosis is an inherited autosomal recessive disease that exerts its main effects on the digestive system and the lungs. This disease is the most common genetic disorder amongst Caucasians. Cystic fibrosis affects about one in 2,500 people, with one in twenty five being a heterozygote. With the use of antibiotics, the life span of a person afflicted with CF can be extended up to thirty years however, most die before the age of thirteen.1 Since so many people are affected by this disease, its no wonder that CF was the first human genetic disease to be cloned by geneticists. In this paper, I will be focusing on how the cystic fibrosis gene was discovered while at the same time, discussing the protein defect in the CF gene, the bio-chemical defect associated with CF, and possible treatments of the disease. Finding the Cystic Fibrosis Gene:The classical genetic approach to finding the gene that is responsible for causing a gene tic disease has been to first characterize the bio-chemical defect within the gene, then to identify the mutated protein in the gene of interest, and finally to locate the actual gene. However, this classical approach proved to be impractical when searching for the CF gene. To find the gene responsible for CF, the principle of reverse genetics was applied. Scientists accomplished this by linking the disease to a specific chromosome. After this linkage, they isolated the gene of interest on the chromosome and then tested its product.2Before the disease could be linked to a specific chromosome, a marker needed to be found that would always travel with the disease. This marker is known as a Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism or RFLP for short. RFLPs are varying base sequences of DNA in different individuals which are known to travel with genetic disorders.3 The RFLP for cystic fibrosis was discovered through the techniques of Somatic Cell Hybridization and through Southern Blot E lectrophoresis (gel separation of DNA). By using these techniques, three RFLPs were discovered for CF; Doc RI, J3.11, and Met. Utilizing in situ hybridization, scientists discovered the CF gene to be located on the long arm of chromosome number seven. Soon after identifying these markers, another marker was discovered that segregated more frequently with CF than the other markers. This meant the new marker was closer to the CF gene. At this time, two scientists named Lap-Chu Tsui and Francis Collins were able to isolate probes from the CF interval. They were now able to utilize to powerful technique of chromosome jumping to speed up the time required to isolate the CF gene much faster than if they were to use conventional genetic techniques.3In order to determine the exact location of the CF gene, probes were taken from the nucleotide sequence obtained from chromosome jumping. To get these probes, DNA from a horse, a cow, a chicken, and a mouse were separated using Southern Blot ele ctrophoresis. Four probes were found to bind to all of the vertebrates DNA. This meant that the base pairs within the probes discovered contained important information, possibly even the gene. Two of the four probes were ruled out as possibilities because they did not contain open reading frames which are segments of DNA that produce the mRNA responsible for genes. We will write a custom essay on The Cystic Fibrosis Gene Research Paper specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The Northern Blot electrophoresis technique was then used to distinguish between the two probes still remaining in order to find out which one actually contained the CF gene. This could be accomplished because Northern Blot electrophoresis utilizes RNA instead of DNA. The RNA of cell types affected with CF, along with the RNA of unaffected cell types were placed on a gel. Probe number two bound to the RNA of affected cell types in the pancreas, colon, and nose, but did not bind to the RNA from non-affected cell types like those of the brain and heart. Probe number one did not bind exclusively to cell types from CF affected areas like probe number two did. From this evidence, it was determined that probe number two contained the CF gene. While isolating the CF gene and screening the genetic library made from mRNA (cDNA library), it was discovered that probe number two did not hybridize. The chances for hybridization may have been decreased because of the low levels of the CF gene present within the probe. Hybridization chances could also have been decreased because the cDNA used was not made from the correct cell type affected with CF. The solution to this lack of hybridization was to produce a cDNA library made exclusively from CF affected cells. This new library was isolated from cells in sweat glands. By using this new cDNA library, probe number two was found to hybridize excessively. It was theorized that this success was due to the large amount of the CF gene present in the sweat glands, or the gene itself could have been involved in a large protein family. Nevertheless, the binding of the probe proved the CF gene was present in the specific sequence of nucleotide bases being analyzed. The isolated gene was prov en to be responsible for causing CF by comparing its base pair sequence to the base pair sequence of the same sequence in a non-affected cell. The entire CF cDNA sequence is approximately 6,000 nucleotides long. In those 6,000 n.t.s, three base pairs were found to be missing in affected cells, all three were in exon #10. This deletion results in the loss of a phenylalanine residue and it accounts for seventy percent of the CF mutations. In addition to this three base pair deletion pattern, up to 200 different mutations have been discovered in the gene accounting for CF, all to varying degrees. .u1823037627aaf4a6b97439643b1547a8 , .u1823037627aaf4a6b97439643b1547a8 .postImageUrl , .u1823037627aaf4a6b97439643b1547a8 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u1823037627aaf4a6b97439643b1547a8 , .u1823037627aaf4a6b97439643b1547a8:hover , .u1823037627aaf4a6b97439643b1547a8:visited , .u1823037627aaf4a6b97439643b1547a8:active { border:0!important; } .u1823037627aaf4a6b97439643b1547a8 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u1823037627aaf4a6b97439643b1547a8 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u1823037627aaf4a6b97439643b1547a8:active , .u1823037627aaf4a6b97439643b1547a8:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u1823037627aaf4a6b97439643b1547a8 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u1823037627aaf4a6b97439643b1547a8 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u1823037627aaf4a6b97439643b1547a8 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u1823037627aaf4a6b97439643b1547a8 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u1823037627aaf4a6b97439643b1547a8:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u1823037627aaf4a6b97439643b1547a8 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u1823037627aaf4a6b97439643b1547a8 .u1823037627aaf4a6b97439643b1547a8-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u1823037627aaf4a6b97439643b1547a8:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Antigone's Tragic Hero EssayThe Protein Defect:The Cystic Fibrosis gene is located at 7q31-32 on chromosome number seven and spans about 280 kilo base pairs of genomic DNA. It contains twenty four exons.4 This gene codes for a protein involved in trans-membrane ion transport called the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator or CFTR. The 1,480 amino acid protein structure of CFTR closely resembles the protein structure of the ABC-transporter super family. It is made up of similar halves, each containing a nucleotide-binding fold (NBF), or an ATP-binding complex, and a membrane spanning domain (MSD). The MSD makes up the transmembrane Cl- channels. There is also a Regulatory Domain (R-Domain) that is located mid-protein which separates both halves of the channels. The R-Domain is unique to CFTR and is not found in any other ABC-transporter. It contains multiple predicted binding sites for protein kinase A and protein Kinase C.4 Mutations in the first MDS are mainly found in exon #4 and exon #7. These types of mutations have been predicted to alter the selectivity of the chloride ion channels.4 Mutations that are in the first NBF are predominant in CFTR. As previously mentioned, 70 percent of the mutations arising in CF cases are deletions of three base pairs in exon #10. These three base pairs give rise to phenylalanine and a mutation at this site is referred to as DF508.5 Such a mutation appears not to interfere with R-Domain phosphorylation and has even been reported to transport chloride ions.6;7 There are five other frequent mutations that occur in the first NBF. The first is a deletion of an isoleucine residue, DF507. The second is a substitution of glycine or amino acid #551 by aspartic acid/F551D. The third involves stop mutations at arginine #553 and glycine #542. The fourth is substitutions of serine #549 by various other residues. The fifth is a predicted splicing mutation at the start of exon #11.7Mutations within the R-Domain are extremely rare. The only reason they do occur is because of frameshifts. Frameshifts are mutations occurring due to the starting of the reading frame one or two nucleotides later than in the normal gene translation.4Mutations in the second membrane spanning domain of the CFTR are also very rare and have only been detected in exon #17b. These have no relevance to mutations occurring in the first membrane spanning domain. They apparently do not have a significant impact on the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator either.4Mutations in the second nucleotide-binding fold occur frequently in exon #19 and exon #20 by the deletion of a stop signal at amino acid number 1282 . Exon #21 is sometimes mutated by the substitution of asparagine #1303 with lysine #N1303K.4The Bio-Chemical Defect:Studies of the chloride channels on epithelial cells lining the lungs, sweat glands, and pancreas have shown a consensus in that the activation of chloride secretion in response to cAMP (adenosine 3, 5-monophosphate) is impaired in cystic fibrosis cases. Another affected, independently regulated chloride channel that has been discovered is activated by calcium-dependent protein kinases. Sodium ions have also been noted to be increasingly absorbed by apical sodium channels.8 Therefore, the lack of regulated chloride ion transport across the apical membranes and apical absorption of sodium ions, impedes the extracellular presence of water. Water will diffuse osmotically into cells and will thus cause the dehydration of the sol (5- mm fluid layer of the cell membrane) and the gel (blanket of mucus) produced by epithelial cells.9 As a result of this diffusion of water, ai rways become blocked and pancreatic proteins turn inactive. An Account of the Absorption and Secretion of Cl-, Na+, and Proteins:An inward, electrochemical Na+ gradient is generated by the Na+, K+-ATPase pump located in the basolateral membrane (the cell side facing the organ it is lining). A basolateral co-transporter then uses the Na+ gradient to transport Cl- into the cell against its own gradient. This is done in such a way that when the apical Cl- channels within the membrane spanning domain open, Cl- diffuse passively with their gradient through the cell membrane.4In pancreatic duct cells, a Na+, H+-ATPase pump is used and a bicarbonate secretion is exchanged for Cl- uptake in the apical membrane. Chloride ions then diffuse passively when the Cl- channels are opened. Such secretions also allow for the exocytosis of proteins in the pancreas which will later be taken into the small intestines for the breaking down of carbohydrates.4In addition to the pump-driven gradients and se cretions, there exists autonomic neurotransmitter secretions from epithelial cells and exocrine glands. Fluid secretion, including Cl-, is stimulated predominately by cholinergic, a-adrenergic mechanisms, and the b-adrenergic actions.4 Such chemical messengers cannot enter the cell, they can only bind to specific receptors on the cell surface and transmit messages to and through an intracellular messenger such as Ca2+ and cAMP by increasing their concentration. The intracellular message is transmitted across the cell by either diffusion or by a direct cascade. One example of a directed cascade is the following:Possible Treatments For Cystic Fibrosis:One suggested treatment for CF has been to provide the missing chemicals to the epithelial cells. This can be accomplished by the addition of adenosine 3,5-monophosphate (cAMP) or the addition of the nucleotide triphosphates ATP or UTP to cultures of nasal and tracheal epithelia. This has been proven to alter the rate of Cl- secretion by removing the 5-mmeter sol layer of fluid in the respiratory tract.9 Moreover, luminal application of the compound amiloride, which inhibits active Na+ absorption by blocking Na+ conductance in the apical membrane, reduced cell secretion and absorption to a steady state value. .ue477b9065a31edcfbcdffa14f55689e1 , .ue477b9065a31edcfbcdffa14f55689e1 .postImageUrl , .ue477b9065a31edcfbcdffa14f55689e1 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ue477b9065a31edcfbcdffa14f55689e1 , .ue477b9065a31edcfbcdffa14f55689e1:hover , .ue477b9065a31edcfbcdffa14f55689e1:visited , .ue477b9065a31edcfbcdffa14f55689e1:active { border:0!important; } .ue477b9065a31edcfbcdffa14f55689e1 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ue477b9065a31edcfbcdffa14f55689e1 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ue477b9065a31edcfbcdffa14f55689e1:active , .ue477b9065a31edcfbcdffa14f55689e1:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ue477b9065a31edcfbcdffa14f55689e1 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ue477b9065a31edcfbcdffa14f55689e1 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ue477b9065a31edcfbcdffa14f55689e1 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ue477b9065a31edcfbcdffa14f55689e1 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ue477b9065a31edcfbcdffa14f55689e1:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ue477b9065a31edcfbcdffa14f55689e1 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ue477b9065a31edcfbcdffa14f55689e1 .ue477b9065a31edcfbcdffa14f55689e1-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ue477b9065a31edcfbcdffa14f55689e1:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: U.S Human Rights Intervention EssayAnother treatment that has been suggested is to squirt solutions of genetically engineered cold viruses in an aerosol form into the nasal passages and into the lungs of people infected with CF. This is done in hopes that the virus will transport corrected copies of the mutated gene into the affected persons airways so it can replace the mutated nucleotides.10 This form of treatment is known as gene therapy. A different approach taken in an attempt to cure cystic fibrosis involves correcting the disease while the affected person is still an embryo. Test tube fertilization (in vitro fertilization) and diagnosis of F508 during embryonic development can be accomplished through a biopsy of a cleavage-stage embryo, and amplification of DNA from single embryonic cells.5 After this treatment, only unaffected embryos would be selected for implantation into the uterus. Affected embryos would be discarded. Conclusion:Chloride conductance channels have dramatic potentials. One channel can conduct from 1106 to 1108 ions per second.8 This is particularly impressive when you consider the fact that there are not many channels present on cells to perform the required tasks. As a result of this, a mutation of one channel or even a partial mutation of a channel, that causes a decrease in the percentage of channel openings, can exert a major effect. Even the mildest of cures altering the Cystic Fibrosis Conductance Regulator in CF afflicted people would lead to significant improvements in that individuals health. Since cystic fibrosis is the most common genetic disorder, particularly amongst Caucasians, in todays society, intense research efforts towards its cure would be invaluable. When will cystic fibrosis be completely cured? No one can say for sure but, strong steps have already been taken towards reaching this goal.